B. MALINOWSKI: FUNCTIONALISM, CONCEPT OF CULTURE AND THEORY OF NEED

FUNCTIONALISM: B. MALINOWSKI

 

v  Functionalism explain the persistence of social practices by referring to those effects which are beneficial for the equilibrium or integration of the social system in which these practices are embedded.

v  Functionalism reconstructs the notion of rationality; it is assumed that certain practices which appear     irrational can be made intelligible once their social functions are spelled out. Beneath the surface lies     a deeper social rationality which it is the task of the sociologist to uncover.

v  Functionalism draws upon the notion of functional prerequisites. The argument is often that these         prerequisites need to be fulfilled from a given society to survive or alternatively that society operates      such  that these needs tend to be fulfilled.

v  Functionalism as a label and a separate school only emerged in the course of the 20^th century.

v  Functionalist seek to describe the different parts of a society and their relationship through organic       analogy. The organic analogy compared the different parts of society to the organs of a living         organism.

v  The organism is able to live, reproduce and function through the organized system of its several parts     and organs, like a biological organism a society is able to maintain its essential processes through the     way that the different parts interacted together.

v  Institution such as religion, kinship and the economy are the organs and individuals are the cells in         this social organism

v  Functionalist examines the social significance of phenomena that is the function they serve a                 particular society in maintaining the whole.

v  Functionalism as a separate school became dominant only after the first World War. It was first             introduced by Bronislaw Malinowski and Alfred Reginald Radcliffe Brown.

v  Both used the label functionalism to refer to the theoretical frame of reference which they employed     although Radcliffe Brown occasionally used Structural functionalism to distinguish his argument         from Malinowski

 v  B. Malinowski

v  He was one of the founding fathers of British social anthropology

v  Originally from Poland, Malinowski began to study natural sciences at the Universities of Cracow and Leipzing and then anthropology at the London School of Economics. This initial training in the natural sciences might account for the strong biological bias in his work. But even before he went to England he had developed a keen interest in social sciences.

v  Malinowski’s interests turned to anthropology after reading James Frazer’s The Golden Bough.

 v  v  At the LSE, Malinowski became acquainted with the art of ethnography and he subsequently carried out fieldwork in New Guinea. In his first field visit to New Guinea Malinowski live among the Mailu of Toulon Island a West Papuo-Melanesian group. This research led to several articles and monographs, amongst which Argonauts of the Western Pacific is especially well known. In 1915 he went to Trobriand islands and stayed there until May 1916

v  He rejected diffusionism and the armchair anthropology of the 19^th century. He realized that they were dealing with societies with extremely unreliable and incomplete historical records. Second functionalist thought that it was important to conceive of societies as wholes.

v  Functionalist anthropologist rebelled against some 19^th century frameworks. This is very much the case for Malinowki.

v  Malinowski reacted strongly against Edward Burnett Tylor’s and Frazer’s notion that ‘primitive man’ does not possess the same rational faculties as ‘modern man’

v  Malinowski tried to demonstrate that certain practices or thought processes which are prima facie irrational are reasonable after all in that it can be shown that they serve certain needs whether social or psychological.

v  Phenomena of Magic or Religion :Previous accounts failed to capture the ‘pragmatic utilitarian performance’ of religious practices and rituals.

v  Malinowski suggested taking up the view that MAGIC IS AS MAGIC DOES. Noted that people try to know and control their environment in order to satisfy their biological needs. But the external environment is not entirely predictable nor is it entirely controllable. This uncertainty leads to an accumulation of anxiety which people have a need to relieve; magic and religion fulfill that function

v  Malinowski also stressed that people are sometime faced with disruptions which undermine the             unconscious flow of daily life. Example: when confronted with unexpected death they resort to             magic or religion to deal with these crises as a result of which their anxiety and emotional unrest are        reduced.

v  19^TH Century thinkers tended to believe that several contemporary cultural artifacts or practices are     mere survivals or borrowed traits of the past. That is current beliefs or practices might have fulfilled     some purpose in the past, but as they become transmitted across generations they eventually lose             their initial usefulness. They are cultural fossils in that they are reminiscences of a distant past.

v  Malinowski  insisted that a closer look shows that many of these so called survivals are not mere dead weights at all. They have been transmitted from the past but they are shown to fulfill vital functions in contemporary society. It is a mistake to conceive of cultural transmission as merely duplication. This would be the case only if people did not have the ability to learn from past experience and think ahead. Cultural items are whenever necessary readjusted to new context.

 v  19^th century social scientists attempted to establish laws or law like generalization which transcend the ability of individuals to interfere in the course of events. On the same theme Comte, Durkheim and many others insisted that society is an entity sui generis. Individuals consists psychological and biological features. But it would be mistaken to attempt to explain society by attributing primal causality to either psychological or biological mechanisms. Malinowski’s picture cannot be more different. People act in self interested fashion in that they ensure the satisfaction of their basic needs. These basic needs are biological. Cultural products are secondary

v  19th century anthropological theories lacked a solid empirical basis. That is why Malinowski strongly felt about the need for detailed  ethnographic research.

v  Malinowski theory of needs is essential to his functionalist framework. His concept of need and his notion of function are very much interrelated. Malinowski basically distinguished between three types of needs. The first level refers to the primary biological needs, the second refers to social needs and the third level refers to integrative needs of society.

v  Malinowski observes some simple but important contrasts between humans and animals. Animals lack culture and they therefore cannot rely upon the satisfaction of the secondary needs in order to satisfy  their primary needs. Neither do they have to do so because their anatomical and physiological features allow them to satisfy primary needs anyway. Human beings have culture, and they can thus rely upon the fulfillment of the secondary needs in order to satisfy primary needs. But they are also dependent on culture for their survival because their anatomical and physiological features do not allow them to satisfy primary needs without cultural assistance. For instance human beings can rely upon social norms and conventions for the fulfillment of their needs for security. If people had to reinvent culture with every generation their survival capacity would indeed have been severely limited. Malinowski coined the term integrative imperatives to refer the necessity of the transmission of these norms and conventions across generations. Notice the contrast with animals again. Animals learn and develop habit through trial and error method they are unable to transmit skills to their offspring’s.     

A SCIENTIFC THEORY OF CULTURE AND OTHER ESSAYS BY B. MALINOWSKI

 Ø  B. Malinowski – a renowned anthropologist was a key figure in the development of the functionalist approach to cultural anthropology.

Ø  His collection of essays : A Scientific Theory of Culture and Other Essays is a seminal work that laid the foundation of modern anthropological thought.

Ø  Through these essays Malinowski addresses a various aspects of culture and ethnography, emphasizing the significance of field work and participant observation. 

Ø  One of the central theme in Malinowski’s essays in the emphasis on field work and participant observation. 

Ø  He argued that to truly understand a culture anthropologist must immerse themselves in the daily lives of the people they study. 

Ø  His approach goes beyond the armchair anthropology prevalent in his time. 

Ø  Malinowski believed that living with and experiencing culture first hand was essential for obtaining an accurate and holistic view of a society. 

Ø  He coined the term participant observation which continues to be cornerstone in modern ethnographic research. 

Ø  Malinowski’s emphasis on field work and participant observation also challenges the prevalent colonial and ethnocentric attitudes of his time.

Ø  Malinowski defined culture in 1931 and stated “Culture comprises inherited artifacts, goods, technical processes, ideas, habits and values. Social organization is a part of culture. 

Ø  Malinowski used the term culture as a functioning whole and developed the idea of studying the function of the beliefs, practices, customs and institutions which together made the WHOLE of a culture. 

Ø    For Malinowski it is a vast apparatus partly material, partly human and partly spiritual by which man is able to cope with concrete specific problems that face him 

Ø  Malinowski concept of culture included

material culture

concrete categories of human activities

constitutional charter for social groups and beliefs

Ø  Malinowski advocated for cultural relativism the idea that each culture should be understood on its terms without imposing internal judgment.

Ø  The role of MYTH in life Malinowski explores the significance of myths in shaping and reinforcing cultural values.

Ø  He argues that myths are not merely fanciful stories, they serve a functional purpose in society

Ø  Myths help in maintaining social cohesion, transmit cultural knowledge and addresses fundamental questions about the world.

Ø  Malinowski’s analysis of the Trobriand Islanders Kula Ring, a complex system of ceremonial exchange illustrates how myths are intertwined with everyday practices and beliefs.

Ø  Malinowski examines how languages is not just a tool for conveying information but serves the social function of maintaining relationship. He demonstrates that small talk in everyday communication are essential for creating and sustaining social bonds within a community.

Ø  Malinowski also explores the role of magic, religion and science in different societies. He asserts that magic and religion are integral to human culture as they provide answers to questions about the unknown and uncertain.

Ø  Magic in particular offers individuals a sense of control over their environment even if it is based on irrational beliefs.

Ø  Furthermore Baloma – the spirits of the dead delves into the Trobriand islanders beliefs about the afterlife.

Ø  Malinowski account demonstrate intricate relationship between belief and psychological needs

Ø  The idea of Baloma allowed the Trobriand Islanders to cope with grief and loss associated with death.

Ø  Malinowski’s work challenges the notion that Western Scientific rationalism is the only valid world view emphasizing the need for more culturally sensitive approach  

THEORY OF NEED

 

Malinowski’s search for concept to analyze primitive culture led to a particular approach to explanation of social facts. This approach is known as his THEORY OF NEEDS.

It was presented in A SCIENTIFIC THEORY OF CULTURE by Malinowski.

According to him needs were twofold :

Need of individual

Need of society

Need is the limiting set of facts, habits and their motivations, the learned responses and the foundations of organization, must be so arranged as to allow the basic needs to be satisfied.

BIOLOGICAL IMPULSES

Malinowski provided a table of Permanent Vital Sequences incorporated in all cultures. These  sequences refer to the satisfaction of impulses of an individual . These are :

	Impulse leading to	Act, leading	Satisfaction
1	Drive to breathe	Intake of oxygen	Elimination of carbon dioxide
2	Hunger	Ingestion of food	Satiation
3	Thrust	Absorption of liquid	Quenching
4	Sex appetite	Conjugation	Detumescence (subsidence of swelling
5	Fatigue	Rest	Restoration of muscular and nervous energy
6	Restlessness (sleepiness)	Activity	Satisfaction of fatigue
7	Somnolence	Sleep	Awakening with restored energy
8	Bladder pressure	Micturition (urination )	Removal of tension
9	Colon pressure	Defecation	Abdominal relaxation
10	Fright	Escape from danger	Relaxation
11	Pain	Avoidance by effective act	Return to normal state

      

 The table refers to the satisfaction of the impulses of an individual

TYPES OF NEEDS

 Malinowski added the concept of individual and group survival to that of individual impulse. He constructed a model type of needs. it comprised three types namely:

BASIC NEEDS

The basic needs focused on the conditions essential to both individual and group survival. The table of basic needs is as follows :

 

BASIC NEEDS	CULTURAL RESPONSES
METABOLISM	COMMISSARIAT (FOOD SUPPLIES)
REPRODUCTION	KINSHIP
BODILY COMFORT	SHELTER
SAFETY	PROTECTION
MOVEMENT	ACTIVITIES
GROWTH	TRAINING
HEALTH	HYGIENE

 

DERIVED NEEDS: Human beings life as a social creature brings about a secondary determinism. For the satisfaction of basic needs culture creates its own needs. These are according to Malinowski derived needs or imperatives which relate to

DERIVED NEEDS	RESPONSES
Requirements of maintenance of cultural apparatus	Economics
Regulation of human behavior	Social control
Socialization	Education
Exercise of authority	Political organization

These derived needs or imperatives do not however include all imperatives established among human beings

INTEGRATIVE NEEDS

Human social life is characterized by what Malinowski calls the integrative imperatives. through integrative imperatives, habits is converted into custom, care of children into the training of next generation and impulse into values. The phenomena such as tradition, normative standards or values, religion, art, language and other forms of symbolism belong according to Malinowski to the sphere of integrative imperatives.