EMERGENCE OF SOCIOLOGY

 

EMERGENCE OF SOCIOLOGY

 

To understand the emergence of sociology in Europe we need to appreciate the relationship between society and ideas. There is always a connection between the social conditions of a period and the ideas, which arise and are dominant in that period. our country. For example when India was under the British Raj, she had to suffer all the ills of colonialism. Indians were economically exploited, politically bonded, socially humiliated, culturally bereft. At the same time, the Indian middleclass emerged as a product of the economic policies of colonialism. They had also been exposed to the liberal and radical European social thought. They were therefore disturbed by the exploitation of colonialism and started writing, campaigning and building up a movement to free India. Culture, theatre, songs, literature were pervaded by the spirit of freedom. Thus  ideas are normally rooted in their social context. It is in this context that we need to see the emergence of sociology as a discipline.

The Enlightenment Period

The roots of the ideas developed by the early sociologists are grounded in the social conditions that prevailed in Europe. The emergence of sociology as a scientific discipline can be traced to that period of European history, which saw such tremendous social, political and economic changes as embodied in the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution. This period of change in European society is known as the Enlightenment Period as it embodies the spirit of new awakening in the French philosophers of the eighteenth century.

The Enlightenment Period marked a radical change from the traditional thinking of feudal Europe. It introduced the new way of thinking and looking at reality. Individuals started questioning each and every aspect of life and nothing was considered sacrosanct - from the church to the state to the authority of the monarch and so on.

The new outlook developed as a result of the Commercial Revolution and the Scientific Revolution and crystalised during the French and the Industrial Revolutions gave birth to sociology as a discipline.

Structure and Change in European Society

Old Europe was traditional. Land was central to its economic system. There were owners of land, the feudal lords and the peasants who worked on the lands. The classes were distinct and clearly demarcated. Religion formed the corner stone of society. The religious heads decided what was moral, what was not. Family and kinship were central to the lives of the people. Monarchy was firmly rooted in society. The king was believed to be divinely ordained to rule over his people.

The New Europe ushered in by the two Revolutions, the French and the industrial, challenged each and every central feature of old Europe. Classes Early Sociology were recognised. Old classes were overthrown. New classes arose. Religion was questioned. Religion lost its important position. Family loyalties gave way to ideological commitments. The position of women changed. And finally monarchy was overthrown. Democracy was heralded in.

THE SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN WHICH SOCIOLOGY EMERGED

Sociology emerged as a distinct science in nineteenth century Europe. Europe then was passing through a period of immense changes which had set in with the French and the Industrial Revolutions. Indeed, sociology can be considered above all a science of the new industrial society.

The Commercial Revolution

The “Commercial Revolution” refers to a series of events between 1450 to approximately 1800. These events signaled to a shift from the largely subsistence and stagnant economy of medieval Europe to a more dynamic and worldwide system.

It saw the expansion of trade and commerce with Oriental countries and the America, initially by land and then by sea routes.

This transition ended the Italian trade monopoly and with the rise of England, France, Portugal and Spain , commerce expanded into a world enterprise.

European markets were flooded with new commodities like spices, textiles, tobacco, chocolate, ivory and above all, human slaves from Africa whose labor further increased availability of raw material and thus increased production. Period also saw :

ü  Expansion of Banking –credit facilities were liberalized. The cheque was invented. Paper money came to replace gold and silver coins.

ü  Growth of companies – Regulated companies, Joint Stock companies and Chartered companies arose.

ü  Rise of a new class – the middle class had become and influential group. It included merchants, bankers, ship-owners and investors. However their power at this stage was mainly economic.

ü  Europeanization of the World- the transplanting of European manners and culture in other societies.

ü  Theory of Mercantilism which justified preferential trade policies and justified economic exploitation of colonies.

This period saw the strengthening of monarchy and the decline of the Church, Europe charted new areas of economic expansion – the whole world become Europe’s oyster.

The Scientific Revolution and the Renaissance Period

Europe produced a ‘scientific revolution’ in the Renaissance period of 16^th century. The impact of the scientific revolution was crucial not just in changing material life, but also people’s ideas about Nature and Society.

Dark age = fall of Roman Empire to arrival of Renaissance = 5^th century A.D., 17^th to 18^th century Enlightenment which said society is humanly created and hence can be changed, nothing is sacred, everything can be questioned.  

ü  Social function of sciences: Science does not develop independent of society, rather it develops in response to human needs e.g. various vaccines were developed out of the necessity to cure diseases. Similarly, new developments in science can change the attitudes and beliefs in other areas as well. New scientific ideas influenced scholars to think about society in new ways.  

ü  Science in the Medieval period: The Church was the epicenter of power, authority and learning. Learning was mostly of the religious variety. Nothing could challenge the ‘dogmas’ or rigid beliefs of the Church. Thus the development of science was restricted mainly to improvements in techniques of production.

ü   The Renaissance period: It marked an era of description and criticism in the field of science. A challenge to the old authority, a new revolution.

ü  Visual art :  Art, literature and science all flourished. A scientific approach to natural phenomena became prevalent. Paintings of that period explored the smallest details of nature and human body.

ü  Medicine: Dissection of the human body became acceptable. The fields of anatomy, physics and pathology benefited greatly.

ü  Navigation and Astronomy: Vasco-da-Gama reached the Indian shores in 1498. Christopher Columbus discovered America in 1492. A strong interest in astronomy, important for successful navigation.

ü  The Copernican Revolution: Copernicus, with the help of detailed explanation, demonstrated the helio-centric theory.

     Important Post Renaissance Developments

ü  Experimental methods in physics and mathematics: The work of Galileo, Johannes Kepler and subsequently Newton revolutionized science. It brought to the forefront the experimental method. Old ideas were challenged and alternative were suggested.

ü  Biology and evolution: Circulation of blood was discovered by William Harvey. Charles Darwin published the ‘Origin of Species’ in 1859 and put forward the theory of ‘Survival of the Fittest’. Darwin studied human evolution. Not just organism societies were seen as constantly evolving or developing from lower to higher stage by Herbert Spencer.

Intellectual development in France

France during the 18^th century had entered the age of reason and rationalism. Some of the major philosophers, whose ideas influenced the French people were rationalists who believed that all true things could be proved by reason.

Montesquieu in his book, The Spirit of the Law, held that there should not be concentration of authority, such as executive, legislative and judicial at one place. He believed in the theory of the separation of powers and the liberty of individuals.

John Locke advocated that every individual has certain rights, which cannot be taken by any authority. These rights were

1                    right to live

2                    right to property

3                    the right of personal freedom

He believed that any ruler who took away these rights from his people should be removed from the seat of power and replaced by another ruler who is able to protect these rights.

Voltaire, advocated religious toleration and freedom of speech. He also stood for the rights of individual for freedom of speech and expression.

Rousseau in his book Social Contract wrote that the people of a country have right to choose their sovereign. He believed that people can develop their personalities best only under a government which is of their own choice.

 Also some of the French who had served in the French Army in the American war of independence, came back with the ideas of equality of individuals and their right to choose their own government. French middle class was deeply affected by these ideas of liberty and equality.

Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution began around 1760 in England. The Growth of trade and commerce brought about an increase in demand for goods which could not be met by the domestic system of production.

During 1760-1830 a series of inventions in tools and techniques and organization of production took place and it gave rise to the factory system of production. Thus a change in economy from feudal to capitalist system of production developed. There emerged a class of capitalists which controlled the new system of production.

Due to this revolution society moved from the old age of hand made goods to the new age of machine made goods. This shift heralded the emergence of Industrial revolution.

Spinning Jenny: invented by James Hargreaves

Water frame : Arkwright

The Mule: Samuel Crompton

As capitalism became more and more complex the developments of banks, insurance companies and finance corporations took place. New class of industrial workers, managers, capitalists emerged.

In rural areas (countryside) due to technical innovation machines stated replacing peasants. The peasants migrated to cities and started working in cotton and other mills and were living and working in very unhygienic condition.

With the increase in production, population started increasing. Rise of population led to the increased rate of urbanization. The industrial cities grew rapidly. In the industrial cities socio-economic disparities were very wide.

The factory workers were involved in repetitive and boring work, production work was controlled by others not workers, the result of which they could not enjoy their work. In Marxist term the worker became alienated for the product of his/her labor.

City life in the industrial society became an altogether different way of life.  

 

 Also some of the French who had served in the French Army in the American war of independence, came back with the ideas of equality of individuals and their right to choose their own government. French middle class was deeply affected by these ideas of liberty and equality.

Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution began around 1760 in England. The Growth of trade and commerce brought about an increase in demand for goods which could not be met by the domestic system of production.

During 1760-1830 a series of inventions in tools and techniques and organization of production took place and it gave rise to the factory system of production. Thus a change in economy from feudal to capitalist system of production developed. There emerged a class of capitalists which controlled the new system of production.

Due to this revolution society moved from the old age of hand made goods to the new age of machine made goods. This shift heralded the emergence of Industrial revolution.

Spinning Jenny: invented by James Hargreaves

Water frame : Arkwright

The Mule: Samuel Crompton

As capitalism became more and more complex the developments of banks, insurance companies and finance corporations took place. New class of industrial workers, managers, capitalists emerged.

In rural areas (countryside) due to technical innovation machines stated replacing peasants. The peasants migrated to cities and started working in cotton and other mills and were living and working in very unhygienic condition.

With the increase in production, population started increasing. Rise of population led to the increased rate of urbanization. The industrial cities grew rapidly. In the industrial cities socio-economic disparities were very wide.

The factory workers were involved in repetitive and boring work, production work was controlled by others not workers, the result of which they could not enjoy their work. In Marxist term the worker became alienated for the product of his/her labor.

City life in the industrial society became an altogether different way of life.  

Significant Features of the Industrial Revolution

1           The condition of Labor: A new population earning their livelihood by working in the factories arose. They lived-in poverty and squalor and were socially deprived. At the same time they were indispensable in the new industrial system which made them a powerful social force. Sociologists recognized that the poverty of this class of workers was not natural poverty but social poverty.

2              The transformation of property: The traditional emphasis on land lost its value while money or capital became important. The investment in new industrial system came to be recognized. The feudal landlords became less significant while the new capitalists gained power.

3           The industrial city i.e. Urbanism: Industries grew and along with it grew cluster of populations, the modern towns and cities. The new cities were known as repositories of misery and inhumanity. In 1810 – 20% people lived in cities, which increased to 80% in 1910 in Britain.

4        Technology and the factory system: The impact of technology and factory system led             to large-scale migration of people to cities. Women and children joined the work force in            the factories. Family relations changes. The machine rather than man seemed to dominate            work. The relation between the laborers and the products of their labor changed. They                work for their wages only. The owner of the factory was dominating the decision making            process. Marx saw a form of enslavement in the machine and a manifestation of                             alienation of labor.         

THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

The French Revolution, which erupted in 1789 marked turning point in the history of human struggle for freedom and equality. It put an end to the age of feudalism and ushered a new order of society. Ideas like liberty, fraternity, owe their origin to French revolution.

THE BASIC PICTURE OF THE FRENCH SOCIETY: DIVISION INTO FEUDAL ESTATES:"

The structure of the feudal French society comprised the “Three Estates”. Estates are defined as a system of stratification found in feudal European societies whereby one section or estate is distinguished from the other in terms of status, privileges and restrictions accorded to the estate.        

The First Estate: consisted of the clergy, which was stratified into higher clergy, such as Cardinal, the archbishops, the bishop and the abbots. They lived a life of luxury and gave a very little attention to religion. In fact some of them preferred the life of politics. They spent much of their time in wasteful activities like drinking, gambling etc. In comparison to the higher clergy the lower parish priests were over worked and poverty stricken.

 The Second Estate: consisted of nobility. There were two kings of nobles: the nobles of sword and the nobles of robe. The nobles of sword were big landlords. They were the protectors of the people in principle but in reality they led a life of a parasite, living off the hard work of the peasants. They spent extravagantly and did not work themselves.

The nobles of robe were nobles not by birth but by title. They were magistrates and judges. Among these nobles some were very progressive and liberal as they had moved in their positions from common citizens who belonged to the third estate.

The Third Estate: comprised of the rest of the society and included the peasants, the merchants, the artisans and others. The peasants were overloaded with so many taxes and they lived a hand to mouth existence. The King in order to maintain good will of the other two estates continued to exploit the poor. The poor peasants had no power against him.

As compared to the peasants the condition of the middle classes also known as the bourgeoisie comprising the merchants, bankers, lawyers, manufacturers etc was much better. These classed too belonged to the third estate. But the poverty of the state, which led to a price rise during 1720-1789, instead of adversely affecting them , helped them. They derived profit from this price rise and the fact that French trade had improved enormously also helped the commercial classes to great extent. This class was rich and secure but had not social prestige.   

     Clergy and nobility: 2% population but own 35% of land

Peasants : 80% population owned 30% land

The first two estates : paid almost no taxes to the government

Peasants: Paid taxes to the Church and government both

The Political Aspect of French Society:

The theory of divine right of King was followed in France. For about 200 years the Kings of the Bourbon dynasty ruled France. Under the rule of the king the ordinary people had no personal rights. They only served the King and his nobles in various capacities. The King’s word was law and no trials were required to a person on the king’s order.

Laws too were different in different regions giving rise to confusion and arbitrariness. There was no distinction between the income of the state and the income of the King.

The Economic Aspect of French Society

The King of France, from Louis XIV onwards fought costly wars, which ruined the country and when Louis  XIV died 1715, France had become bankrupt. Louis XV instead of recovering from this ruin kept on borrowing money from bankers.  Louis XVI a very weak and ineffective king inherited the ruin of a bankrupt government. His wife Queen Marie Antoinette, known for her expensive habits, is famous for her reply, which she gave to the poor, hungry people of France who came to her asking for bread. She told the people that , “if you don’t have bread, eat cake”.

Important events related to French Revolution